CULTURE

Jamaica's culture, in the words of former Prime Minister P. J. Patterson, is “the linchpin that bonds us as a people and is vital to our quality of life", and like that of any other country, is reflected in everything that we do. Our culture influences and affects our belief systems and the goals we set for our future.

Several initiatives are now being introduced towards making Jamaica a cultural mecca, capable of bringing in significant economic benefits and greater worldwide recognition to the nation in this area. These include improving infrastructure at the community level to facilitate cultural exposes, more systematic recording of cultural events and places, and encouraging educational institutions to offer youth and community-based training programmes, by the provision of necessary funding and expertise.

The Jamaican cultural expression / landscape is dynamic and therefore almost always changing. As soon as one becomes accustomed to a particular trend, it changes, hinting at the level of creativity and diversity of the people, and their passionate desire to be constantly on the move to embrace the next adventure.

The expressions of the people have been, and continue to be, influenced by several peoples such as the Arawak Indians/Tainos, English, Africans, Chinese, Indians and Jews. Today, cultural trends in North America seem to be having a greater influence on local culture.

The influences of these ethnic backgrounds have travelled through time and specific tendencies of Jamaicans such as the need for precision in carrying out duties and the closely knit family structures, with its many customs and traditions, have been retained from the Europeans, Africans and East Asians respectively.

From our earliest ancestors, the nation has maintained its family and oral traditions. The family has long been the foundation of Jamaica's cultural expressions. It is within these units that the people have learnt about the history of the island's rich customs and tradition. The extended family unit has been instrumental in this process and still continues to play a significant role in the continuity and preservation of the nation's culture.

Today, this type of unit exists mainly in rural communities, as within urban centres, the nuclear and single parent family types are what pervades.

The language "patois" is an important part of who we are, giving the people a peculiar accent so much so that even in countries outside the region, we are easily identified. The Jamaican sound is so loved that even persons who do not sound like us are often quite comfortable being called "Jamaican". While there may be variations in the patois accent across the island, there are words and phrases that have gone beyond the boundaries of our little island.

Music

It is not enough for us to talk about things, we must sing and dance about them. Music and dance give expression not only to the ancestral heritage but also play a part in historical and social practices. Through music and dance, the joys, sorrows, triumphs and tragedies of the people are expressed creatively and artistically. Over the years, these two have evolved and we have charted the course in some aspects while influencing many other forms of music elsewhere.

Mento is the earliest of Jamaica's original popular music forms, having its genesis during the plantation period and holding sway until the 1950s. It was born out of the fusion of African and British influences. Its performance mode, rhythmic impulse, and call and response type of singing are African in origin. Its scale patterns, harmonic concepts, verse and chorus, on the other hand, are British influenced.

Mento was used to address areas of life considered to be taboo in every day speech. Often done with a touch of humour, the words of the accompanying songs addressed our social and economic struggles. Years ago, a mento band could be found in every village in Jamaica. This music form is regarded in some circles as Jamaican calypso.

Popular Mento recordings include "Run Mongoose", "Rukumbine" and "Peel Head John Crow". Today Mento is played mainly by bands in North Coast hotels and as an accompaniment for dances such as

• Quadrille.
• Peel Head John Crow
• Dis long time gal mi neva see yuh
• Come mek mi hol yu han'
• Dis long time gal.. etc.

Reggae is the latest Jamaican music form which has crossed the boundaries from the sprawling slums of Trench Town, West Kingston to high places like Buckingham Palace where Prince Charles is said to indulge. Reggae gave the Third World its first and only superstar in Jamaica’s Bob Marley whose Album, ‘Exodus’, was voted album of the century and single, ‘One Love’ song of the century. Bob Marley who died in May 1981 at the age of 36 from cancer, was conferred with the island’s third highest honour, the Order of Merit and is therefore titled the Honourable Robert Nesta Marley, O.M.

Dance (Quadrille)

The quadrille is a dance form that is a blend of 18th and 19th French and English dances. It highlighted the elegance and mannerisms of the elite of these societies. Quadrille is performed in four distinct movements called figures. A fifth or "brawta" figure was later added to the dance - the Mento.

The Square and Long Way Set formation of Quadrille was introduced in Jamaica in the early 19th century and over time the names were changed to Ballroom Quadrille and Campstyle. The former was performed by the elite of the society and the latter, by ordinary citizens in rural areas.

Both Campstyle and Ballroom Quadrille have African influences although this is more apparent in the Campstyle version. There are five African features - the spectacular footwork by the men, the `bent knee' quality, the `throw back' practice by the blacks to mimic the whites, the use of the hips and the incorporation of steps from other European social dances.

This dance form became popular after Emancipation and was performed at tea parties, house openings, community fairs and family celebrations.


Dinki Mini / Gerreh

Dinki Mini originates from the Congolese word `ndingi' which means lamentation or funeral song. Dinkies are celebratory occasions. Although associated with death, the music is lively, joyous and exciting, intending to cheer the family and friends of the dead person. Dinki Mini was practised openly throughout slavery but is now done mainly during Jamaica's annual Festival activities.

This dance is performed mainly in the parishes of St. Mary, St. Ann, St. Andrew and Portland and Gerreh is found in Hanover, Westmoreland and St. James.

The Dinki Mini dance focuses on the pelvic region as it is performed in defiance of the death that has occurred. The dancers, male and female, make suggestive rotations with the pelvis in an attempt to prove that they are stronger than death, as they have the means to reproduce.

Instruments associated with the Dinki Mini are shakas, katta sticks, condensed milk tins, grater, the tamboo (a cylinder l shaped drum) and the benta. The benta is an ancient stringed instrument made of bamboo and a gourd resonator.

The lyrics of the songs associated with the Gerreh are also suggestive. Gerreh has another dimension, however, called the bamboo dance. This is dancing on elevated bamboo poles and between four bamboo poles brought together and pulled back by four crouching players.

RELIGION

The Jamaican Constitution of 1962 (Chapter III) guarantees freedom of religion. Religion is a very important aspect of Jamaican life.

There are traditional and non traditional churches in Jamaica. The majority of Jamaicans, are Christian. Almost every Christian denomination and sect is represented on the island, with over 100 denominations, the Church of God having the largest membership. Other Christian denominations include Roman Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, Anglican and Congregational, Ethiopian Orthodox and the Seventh-Day Adventist. There are also Jewish, Hindu, Muslim, Bahai and Rastafarian communities.

Christianity

Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholicism was the first Christian denomination to be established in Jamaica. It was introduced by the first Spanish settlers who arrived in Jamaica in 1509. At the order of Peter Matyr, the first stone church was built at Sevilla Nueva (now St Ann's Bay). It was completed in 1526. The present Catholic Church in St Ann's Bay is on the supposed site of this first stone church.

An abbey was set up at the request of the Spanish King and abbotts were appointed from time to time. The Spaniards then began attempting to convert the Arawaks to Christianity but their missionary efforts involved subjugating the Indians and forcing them to carry out heavy manual tasks to which they were not accustomed. The conversion effort eventually failed as the Arawaks rapidly died from disease, abuse and overwork.

In 1655 a Protestant English force captured Jamaica and Roman Catholicism was swept away along with the Spaniards. The Church of England or Anglican Church became the Established Church and remained so until 1870. Although there were priests in Jamaica in the 1680s, it was not until 1792 that the Catholics were again officially given the freedom to exercise their religion in this country. Catholicism, however, did not take hold until the nineteenth century when Catholic refugees fleeing the slave revolt in Haiti, arrived in Jamaica.

The Church of England

King Charles II instructed the establishment of the Church of England to "discourage vice and debauchery". The church had a very difficult beginning as the clergymen were faced with many problems. The two main problems were: how to deal with excessive gambling, drinking and immorality that plagued the colony; and the morality of slavery, which had become quite popular.

Slavery in the West Indies was justified by the theory of racial inferiority, but Christianity taught that all men were the children of God and were equal before God. This doctrine created conflict between the planters and the clergymen.


The Non-Conformists

The conflict between the planters and the clergy didn't really become serious until the Non-conformists arrived.

The Moravians were the first denomination that seriously undertook the teaching of Christianity to the slaves. In 1754 two wealthy plantation owners living in England invited the Moravians to send missionaries to their estates in Jamaica.

The Moravians are still active today especially in Manchester, St Elizabeth and Westmoreland.

The Methodists arrived on the island next in 1789. Methodists were then known as Wesleyans after the founder, John Wesley. They were very enthusiastic and successful in their work among the slaves.

In 1782 two American slaves, Moses Baker and George Lisle, introduced the Baptist denomination. These two slaves started what came to be known as the 'Native Baptist Movement' which held certain superstitious and pagan beliefs. As a result, the Baptist Missionary Society in England invited the Movement to set a mission in Jamaica in order to help spread the Baptist faith. The mission was established in 1814.

The Jamaican Baptists fought arduously for the abolition of slavery under the leadership of men such as William Wilberforce, William Knibb and Thomas Burchell.

Other denominations which came to Jamaica to spread their beliefs among the slaves were the Scottish Missionary Society or Presbyterians (1823) and the Congregationalists.

United Church of Jamaica and Grand Cayman
This church originated in 1965 when the Presbyterian Church of Jamaica merged with the Congregational Union of Jamaica.

Hinduism

After the abolition of slavery unsuccessful attempts were made to replace the labour force on the plantations with European and Chinese workers. The authorities then decided to introduce indentured labour from India. The first batch arrived in 1845.

The religious background of these indentured workers was either Hindu or Moslem. They kept together and continued to practise their forms of worship, which was a source of comfort to them in a strange land. Hinduism is now a well-known and accepted religion in Jamaica.

Judaism

During the Spanish occupation of Jamaica, Jewish settlers from Spain and Portugal, fleeing the Inquisition, came into the island. Over the years other groups of Jews came from Germany and Central Europe. At first, these groups formed separate congregations. The two most popular congregations were the Sephardim and the Ishkenazin. In 1881 they merged to form "The United Congregation of Israelites".

The first Jewish synagogue was built in Jamaica in Port Royal sixteen years before the great earthquake. However, it was in a section of the town that fell into the sea. Synagogues were also built in Spanish Town, Montego Bay, Falmouth and other parts of Jamaica.

Spiritualists

In addition to the numerous Christian denomination, many sects and cults of spiritualists, whose origin dates back to the days of slavery, are quite popular in the island. They are a combination of Christianity, West African polytheism and magic. The African survivals eg Zion Revival, Pocomania and Kumina have many similar practices and features, the main element being the possession of the worshipper by the spirit or the supernatural power. This causes the worshipper to shout, speak in "unknown tongues", sing, prophesy, dance, stamp his feet, recover from ill health or anything else which the spirit causes him to do.

The cultists, spiritualists and revivalists believe that each person has a soul which returns to God for judgement and a spirit or "duppy", which remains after death.

Rastafarianism

"Irie" and "Jah" are popular words, otherwise known as Dreadtalk, a unique linguistic combination created by Rastafarians.

Rastafarianism is an indigenous African-based religion, which in previous years was closely associated with only Jamaica. However, in recent years it has been gaining supporters in other countries.

The two basic doctrines of Rastafarianism are: the belief that Haile selassie, late Emperor of Ethiopia is the black reincarnated Christ; and the goal of redemption through repatriation to Ethiopia, Africa, which is seen as the spiritual home of all black people.

The movement was greatly inspired by the teachings of Marcus Garvey. Garvey, organiser of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) had many dreams for the black race: first, he wanted a worldwide confraternity of the Black race; second, he wished to see the development of Africa from a backward, colonial enclave to a self supporting giant of which all Blacks could be proud; third, he wanted to see Africa as a developed Negro nation, a place to which all Blacks could return. He wanted to see the development of Black educational institutions for the teaching of Black cultures and he wanted to work for the upliftment of the Black race.

It is said that Garvey told his people to "look to Africa, when a black king shall be crowned for the day of deliverance is near". Shortly after Garvey's prophecy, the prince regent of Ethiopia, Ras Tafari Makouner was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I in October 1930. Some 'Garveyites' began to question whether or not this was the king of whom Garvey had spoken.


Ethiopianism

The origins of Rastafarianism is largely based on the identification which blacks have made with Ethiopia by virtue of biblical symbolism. This is summarized in Psalm 38, often repeated by Rastafarians: "Princes shall come out of Egypt; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God". The Ethiopian emperor's coronation in 1930 began a new phase of Ethiopianism among black people. Consequently, it revived many Ethiopianist ideas which had become dormant by the end of the 1920s. The Ethiopianist movement came to a head with the emergence of the Rastafari movement in 1933-34.

While the appeal of Ethiopian consciousness developed, Leonard Howell, a Jamaican who had lived in the United States for many years, returned to the island. Howell was to ignite the radical millenarian consciousness that was based on the doctrine of the divine kingship of Ethiopia's Ras Tafari.

Howell has been described as "the first man who came to Jamaica and introduced his Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile Sellassie as Rastafari the creator of heaven and earth".

Howell led the Movement to take on a radical revolutionary stance and in 1933 he was arrested for publicly advocating six principles:

• Hatred for the white race
• Complete superiority of the Black race
• Revenge on whites for their wickedness
• Negation, persecution and humiliation of the government and legal bodies of Jamaica
• Preparation to go back to Africa
• Acknowledging Emperor Haile Selassie as the Supreme Being and only ruler of Black people

Upon his release from prison, Howell organized the "Ethiopian Salvation Society". He recruited a large following and by 1940 he was the leader of a cult commune deep in the hills of St Catherine. The commune was called Pinnacle. Life here was strictly patterned after the Maroon communities of Jamaica where the inhabitants planted native cash crops for a living. Among these was the famous ganja (marijuana) herb that has remained the center of the Movement's ritual practice. This early phase of Rastafarian wilderness life was cause for concern by many neighbouring citizens, since the cultists were not only a secluded group, but they demanded that taxes should not be paid to the Jamaican government but to them in the name of Haile Selassie.

The police were soon tipped about the Rastafarians' existence and in July 1941 police raided the commune and arrested seventy Rastas, charging them for acts of violence and for the cultivation of a dangerous drug. The Pinnacle commune is an important phase in the early development of the Rastafarians. It established several facets of the Movement - It began the communal pattern of living which has continued among a large segment of Rastas. The use of ganja was also adopted as a ritual practice in the hills.
The Pinnacle, however, was again raided and destroyed once and for all in the 1950s, ending an important era in the Rastafarian movement. After its demise Rastafarians 'regrouped' while at the same time expressing deep hatred for the system and particularly the police who they now referred to as 'Babylon'. Rastafarianism gained numerous supporters - mainly the dispossessed - who established several small camps in what became known as Shanty-Town.

Rastafarians grew more popular all over the island so they decided to assess their strength and unity, forming an organised whole. This led to the calling of a "universal convention" in March 1958. The Rastafarians called it 'Grounation'. Today it is called 'Nyabingi'. This convention gave the Rastas both positive and negative publicity in the eyes of the government and the public.

Beliefs

There are six basic beliefs that can be identified as uniquely Rastafarian. These are:

• Haile Selassie is the living god
• The Black person is the reincarnation of ancient Israel, who, at the hand of the White person, has been in exile in Jamaica.
• The White person is inferior to the Black person.
• The Jamaican situation is a hopeless hell; Ethiopia is heaven.
• The invincible Emperor of Ethiopia is now arranging for expatriated persons of African origin to return to Ethiopia.
• In the near future Blacks shall rule the world.

Symbolism

Among Rastafarians both private and public symbols exist. Private symbols, however, are the most dominant.

Hair

One of the most popular signs of a true Rastafarian is the way he wears his hair. Although there are Rastafarians who do not wear long hair, the true symbol of a cultist is his hairy appearance. It is believed that this wild appearance came from the mountain experience of the cult - a time when it was impossible to cut their hair. It is also believed that it was an imitation of Ethiopian tribal warriors. However, Rastafarians themselves claim that the symbol is religious, quoting the Bible:

They shall not make baldness upon their head, neither shall they shave off the corner of their beard, not make any cuttings in their flesh Leviticus 21:5 They refer to themselves as Nazarites and use Samson as their example.

Food

Food symbolism is also quite prominent among the Rastafarian population, all of which is vegetarian, hardly using animal flesh. Their diet is extremely rigid, placing emphaisis on fish and vegetables. The fish that is eaten is particularly of the small variety such as "sprat", not more than twelve inches long. Food is cooked with no salt, no processed shortening and few condiments.

Language

A new type of language symbolism has emerged because of the Rastafarian movement. Rastafarian speech has been labelled "soul language", "ghetto language", and "Dread talk". There are three prominent features of the Rastafarian language: it is ungrammatical; it is Jamaican dialect used on the philosophical level; and it is devoid of subject-object opposition and without verbs.

Although the Rastafarians have experienced a level of ostracism and upheavals, the movement contributed to social development and has had a tremendous impact on the Jamaican culture.

Today, all over the island Rastafarian paintings, sculptures and ceramics can be bought. Rastafarian artists include Ras Dizzy, Ras Daniel Heartman and Ras Canute. Ras T is also a popular young painter-poet. Many Rastafarians are making great strides and the movement has become an accepted institution.